Route 21. From Safed to Damascus.

a. By Bâniâs.

From Safed to Bâniâs 9 hrs., thence to Damascus 13 ½ hrs. — The journey from Tiberias to Bâniâs may be accomplished in two days if a point beyond Safed be reached on the first day. From Safed the traveller may either descend the valley and regain the direct route from Khân Jubb Yûsef (p. 375) to ‘Ain Melláha, or take the far more interesting route across the mountains towards the N., which we now describe.

We descend N.N.W. into the valley to (20 min.) ‘Ain ez-Zeitan, whence we see Safed standing prominently on the hill behind us. Several small valleys are crossed and (25 min.) some ruins are passed. To the N.E. is the village of Belâta. We next come to (20 min.) Taiteba. The view hence to the W. embraces the green hills of Upper Galilee; a small building is visible on the N. side of the Jermak; to the E. rise the mountains of Jôlân. To the E. of the village is a reservoir, and 20 min. beyond it we come to another, near a ruin. From the top of the hill, a little farther on, we enjoy an admirable survey of the valley of Jordan and the basin of Lake Hûleh. This point of view lies to the N.E. of Taiteba, but our road now again turns to the N., and traverses the Wâdy el-Meshérejeh, near a round wooded hill. In 40 min. we reach the village of ‘Alma, and perceive that of Fâra to the left. The route passes (10 min.) some extensive but nameless ruins on the right, with remains of columns, descends (20 min.) into the deep valley of ‘Uba, and (¼ hr.) again ascends. To the left, on the hill, lies the village of Déshun, picturesquely situated above the valley. We reach it in ¼ hr.; its stone houses with sloping roofs have quite a European look.

To the right rises the bush-clad Tell Khureibeh, the peaks of which command a fine view of the deep Wâdy Henâdj, the plain of Hûleh, and the lofty plateau of Kedes. There are some shapeless ruins here, several Olive-presses on the hill, and tombs at its base. Robinson supposes this to be the site of the ancient Hazor (Joshua xi. 10—13), the residence of the Canaanitish king Jabin, who with his allies took the field against Joshua, but was defeated by the Waters of Merom, after which his city was burned. A second Jabin of Hazor who afterwards oppressed the Israelites was defeated by Barak and Deborah (Judges iv. 2). If we may judge from the order in which the towns taken by Tiglath-Pileser are enumerated in the Bible (2 Kings xv. 29), Hazur must have been situated somewhere near Kedes.

Our route still leads northwards, and in ¾ hr. we reach the village of Kedes.

History. Kedesh was also the seat of a Canaanitish prince, but was afterwards allotted to the tribe of Naphtali, and at the same time was made a residence of the Levites and a city of refuge. This was the native place of Barak, Deborah's general. The town was afterwards taken and its inhabitants carried into captivity by Tiglath-Pileser, after which it never recovered. The tombs of Barak and Deborah were afterwards shown here. The place was called ‘Kedesh in Galilee’ to distinguish it from other towns of the name.

The remains of buildings which still exist here are of the later Jewish period. By the spring below the village are several large sarcophagi, some of which are used as troughs. To the N. E. of the spring is a small building constructed of large blocks; two arches are preserved, and also part of a door looking southwards. Farther to the E. are several sarcophagi, standing together on a raised platform. On the sides are hewn rosettes, but time has destroyed every other enrichment. The lids, some of which cover two receptacles, are finely executed. An old wall, perhaps the enclosure of a burial-ground, is distinctly traceable near these tombs. Farther E. lie the ruins of a large building, probably a synagogue. The walls are still standing. In the E. facade there is a large portal flanked by two smaller ones. The village contains an interesting octagonal column, many capitals, and other fragments. Notwithstanding its fertile situation, it is thinly peopled.

The road next leads to a (26 min.) reservoir in a valley, and avoids the village of Bléda on the hill to the left. It passes (¼ hr.) some ruins near several fine terebinths (butm), leaves (10 min. ) the village of Umm Habîb on the hill to the left, and ¼ hr.) reaches the large village of Mês. A little farther on we come upon traces of a Roman road. Our route traverses underwood, and after 40 min. we see the ruined castle of Menâra on the hill to the right. We also enjoy a fine view of the Jordan valley and Lake Hûleh, the grand range of Mt. Hermon, distant blue mountains to the E., the fortress of Tibnîn to the W., and Hunîn to the N.

In 35 min. we reach the ruins of the extensive fortress of Hunin, situated near a small village of the same name. The castle was seriously damaged by the earthquake of 1837. The substructions are certainly ancient, as is proved by the drafted blocks on the E. and S. sides. Similar stones are seen in a portal in the village. On the N. side the ground is rocky, and the castle was defended there by a moat 19 ft. deep and of the same width. The round towers date from the later Turkish fortress, which was much smaller than the old, and extended more to the S. and E. Hunîn commands a beautiful view, and Bâniâs is visible in the distance. It is unknown to what ancient place Hunîn corresponds.

The road now descends rapidly into the valley, at first traversing underwood. In the plain below lies the Christian village of Abîl, answering to the ancient Abel (2 Sam. xx. 14); and farther N. is Mutelli, the southernmost of the Druse villages. Our route leaves both of these to the left, and (55 min.) reaches the plain at a point where it is joined by the direct route from Saida on the left (p. 450). We are now in the low ground where all the sources of Jordan unite and empty themselves either into Lake Hûleh or the extensive marshes around it. After 8 min. we cross the Derdâra by a bridge of a single arch. On the left side are several ruins. The view down the valley is very fine. This tract was once richly cultivated, but is now chiefly used as grazing-land by the Beduîns, the best pastures being here and at Merj ‘Iyûn, the ancient Ijon (p. 450). After 10 min. we cross a dry watercourse, and in 25 min. reach the bridge of El-Ghajâr, which crosses the Hasbâny, the N. tributary and chief source of the Jordan.

Descending hence by the E. side of the river, a little to the right (E.S.E.), we may make an excursion to Tell el-Kâdi. After 25 min. we ford a brook, and reach the hill in 22 min. more.

The Tell el-Kâdi is an extensive mound, 330 paces long, 270 paces wide, and 30—38 ft. above the plain. On the top is a Muslim tomb under a fine oak. On the W. side of the hill is heard the murmuring of abundant water. Forcing our way in this direction through a dense thicket of oleanders, we descend a rocky slope to a basin about 50 paces in width, from which this source of the Jordan emerges from the earth so copiously as at once to form a considerable stream. Around the pool are heaped blocks of basalt. From the S.W. corner of the mound issues another stream, probably from the same source, soon uniting with the other to form El-Leddân. This stream which Josephus calls the Little Jordan, is popularly regarded as the chief source of the Jordan from its being the most copious. It contains twice as much water as the stream from Bâniâs, with which, however, it does not unite in any one definite channel, and thrice as much as the Hasbâny, which unites with the other two sources, forming the full-grown Jordan, at Shêkh Yûsef, about 4 ½ M. below the Tell el-Kâdi. At this last point the river is 45 ft. wide, its bed being double that width, and it lies 12—20 ft. below the level of the plain.

The words Kâdi (Arabic for ‘judge’) and Dan (Hebrew) are synonymous. On the Tell el-Kâdi doubtless stood the ancient city of Dan, the northern frontier town of the Israelitish kingdom, whence arose the often recurring expression ‘from Dan to Beersheba’. Before the place was conquered by the Danites (Judges xviii. 27) it was called Laish, and belonged to the territory of Sidon, but even in the history of Abraham it is mentioned by its later name (Gen. xiv. 14). Under Jeroboam Dan became the chief seat of his idolatrous rites (1 Kings xii. 28—30). It was afterwards conquered by Benhadad, King of Syria (1 Kings xv. 20).

We now return to the main road which leads us towards the foot of the E. hills. To the right, on the hill to the S. E., is the Neby Seyyid Yehûda. The path gradually ascends through wood, passing several murmuring brooks; after ¾ hr. the ascent becomes steeper, and in 25 min. more we reach Bâniâs.

History. The modern Bâniâs was anciently the Greek Paneas, which, according to Josephus, appears also to have been the name of a district. Near it was a sanctuary of Pan (Paneion), adjoining the cavern in which one of the sources of the Jordan takes its rise. When Herod the Great received from Augustus the territory of Zenodorus, and the tetrarchy to the N. and N.E. of the Lake of Tiberias, including Paneas, he erected a temple over the spring in honour of Augustus. Philip the Tetrarch, Herod’s son, who inherited the districts of Batanæa, Trachonitis, Auranitis, Gaulanitis, Paneas, and (Luke iii. 1) Ituræa, enlarged Paneas and gave it the name of Caesarea, to which was afterwards added Philippi, to distinguish it from Cæsarea Palæstina (p. 351). This is probably the most northern point ever visited by Christ (Matth. xvi. 13; Mark viii. 27). The older name of the town never entirely disappeared, both names frequently occurring together on coins of the Ptolemies. Herod Agrippa II. extended the town and called it Neronias, but this name did not long survive. Titus here celebrated the capture of Jerusalem with gladiatorial combats, at which many of the Jewish captives were compelled to enter the lists with wild beasts or with each other. An early Christian tradition makes this the scene of the healing of the woman with the issue of blood (Matth. ix. 20). In the 4th cent. a bishopric was founded here under the patriarchate of Antioch. Even before the Arabian domination the old name of the place was revived. During the Crusades Bâniâs was repeatedly conquered. In 1229 or 1230 it surrendered, together with the lofty fortress of Subébeh (p. 384) to the Christians after their unsuccessful attack on Damascus. The knight Rainer Brus afterwards received the town and castle as a fief. In 1132 Bâniâs was taken by Sultan Ishmael of Damascus, but in 1139 it was recaptured by the Christians. A Latin bishopric, subordinate to the archbishopric of Tyre, was then founded here. Bâniâs afterwards came into the possession of the Connétable Honfroy. Nûreddin conquered the town in 1157, but could not reduce the fortress. The town was retaken by Baldwin III., but was finally occupied by Nûreddin in 1165, after which the Franks never recovered it. Sultan el-Muazzam caused the fortifications to be razed.

Bâniâs is beautifully situated. It lies at the N. end of a triangular terrace in a nook of the Hermon mountains, 1150ft. Above the sea-level, and 492 ft. higher than the Tell el-Kâdi, between the Wâdy Khashâbeh and the Wâdy Za‘âreh (S.), two valleys coming from the E. A third valley, the Wâdi el-‘Asal, opens a little to the N., from a deep wooded ravine among the mountains. Water abounds in every direction, calling into life a teeming luxuriance of vegetation, and serving to irrigate the flelds which extend hence down to the plain. The present village consists of about fifty houses, most of which are enclosed within the ancient castle-wall. On the S. side of this wall flows the brook of the Wâdy Za‘âreh, which unites a little lower down with the copious stream of the infant Jordan. Remains of columns show that the ancient city extended far to the S. beyond the Wâdy Za‘âreh. The castle in the N. part of the town was a vast edifice. On the N. side its wall was protected by the waters of the Bâniâs spring. The building materials are extremely massive. The corner-towers of the walls were round, and constructed of large drafted blocks. Three of these towers are preserved. In the centre of the S. side of the castle stands a portal, which is antique, though bearing an Arabic inscription. A stone bridge, which is also partly ancient, crosses the Wâdy from this point, and several columns of granite are observed in its walls.

Below the W. end of the lofty castle-hill, to the S. of the Wâdy el-Khashâbeh, issues a copious stream, the most interesting feature of Bâniâs. The mountain terminates here in a precipitous cliff of limestone (mingled with basalt), and appears to have been so broken away by convulsions of nature that a large cavern which once existed here has been nearly destroyed. Beneath the mass of broken rocks that choke the entrance to the cavern and almost conceal it, bursts forth an abundant stream of beautiful clear water, forming one of the chief sources of the Jordan. By this spring stood the ancient Panium, which gave place to a temple built here by Herod, in honour of Augustus. On the face of the cliff, to the S. of the cavern, are several votive niches, which were once much higher above the ground than now. The most northern niche is large and deep, and above it is a smaller one. Several other niches are hollowed out in the form of shells. Over the small niche to the S. is the inscription in Greek: ‘Priest of Pan’. — On the rock stands the small weli of Shékh Khidr (St. George), which commands a good survey of Bâniâs and a fine view of the mountain ranges to the W.

The huge Castle above Bâniâs, however, commands a far finer prospect, and the ascent (1 ¼ hr.) is strongly recommended as a morning’s excursion. The traveller may either take horses and a guide with him, riding being practicable, or he may send the horses on to a certain point on the Damascus road (see below) to await his arrival after having visited the castle on foot. (The latter plan’is preferable. )

We follow a narrow road to the E. (not that which traverses the olive-grove in the castle, but one which ascends to the right of it), and in 10 min. we reach the foot of the hill. Pursuing the same direction, and traversing underwood, we reach the castle in 1 hour. The castle, which was formerly called Kal‘at es-Subébeh (a name now hardly known), is of great extent, and is one of the best preserved in Syria. As in the case of Hunîn, the architecture of many different centuries is traceable here. The castle stands on the irregularly shaped summit of a narrow ridge which is separated from the flank of Mt. Hermon by the Wâdy Khashâbeh. The edifice follows the irregularities of its site. From E. to W. it is 260—330 yds. long, at each end nearly 100 yds. wide, but in the middle much narrower. A few poor hovels now stand within the castle, the occupants of which offer water from the large but somewhat muddy cisterns. The S. part of the castle is the best preserved. The pointed arches distinctly indicate the mediæval origin of most of the structure, but older materials have probably been utilised. All the substructions consist of drafted blocks of beautiful workmanship. Towards the middle of the S. side is preserved a building called by the Arabs El-Mehkemeh, or ‘house of judgment’. Externally it possesses very handsome pointed niches, and the thick wall is pierced with small arched apertures resembling loopholes. The vaulting is borne by a large pillar. The ear-shaped enrichments on the arches are curious. On the S. side of the (castle there are several other buildings resembling towers, in a more or less dilapidated condition. — The S.E. part of the castle is in ruins. The Arabic inscriptions here have unfortunately not all been collected; nor have any excavations been made. So far as the writer could decipher the inscriptions, they reached back to the beginning of the 13th cent., and probably have reference to the thorough restoration of the castle. The E. part of the building, in which there are several cisterns, is higher than the W. part, and affords a survey of the whole fortress. This part was originally meant to form a distinct citadel, being separated from the W. part by a wall and moat. The N. side of the castle presents the most striking appearance. Part of the enclosing wall here has fallen over the precipice, 600—650 ft. in height, into the Wâdy el-Khashâbeh. The wooded valley below and the opposite heights of Hermon present a noble picture. The precipice at the S.W. angle is also of a dizzy height; a flight of steps hewn on the W. side is no longer accessible. This point commands the best view of Bâniâs, the Hûleh Lake, and the hills beyond Jordan. To the N.W. Kal‘at esh-Shekîf (p. 449), and to the W. Hunîn (p. 381) serve as it were to balance the picture. To the S. extends the Jebel el-Hésh, or wooded mountain; the village of ‘Anfît is visible, and above it Za‘ôra. To the S.E. is ‘Ain Kanya; to the E. the village of Hazûri, and farther distant that of Jubbâta. On the whole the view is one of the most magnificent in Syria. The castle stands about 2300 ft. above the sea-level.

Leaving the castle towards the E.S.E., we may descend by a steep path into the valley, ascend a little on the opposite side, and thus regain the Damascus road (1 hr.) at a point where those who have visited the castle on foot may meet their horses.

In order to visit the Birket er-Râm from Bânias we proceed past the Wâdy Za‘âreh to ‘Ain Kanya in 1 hr., and in 1 hr. more reach the lake. From Shékh ‘Othmân el-Hazûri (see below) via the Merj Yafûri the lake is reached in about 1 ½ hr. (guide necessary). The Birket er-Râm is the Phiala of Josephus. It is, as its name imports, of a cup-like shape, occupying the bottom of a deep basin resembling an extinct crater, situated 150-200 ft. below the surrounding table-land, and about 3000 paces in circumference. The impure water abounds with frogs and leeches. According to tradition, the spring of Bâniâs is supplied from this lake, but the impossibility of their being connected has been satisfactorily proved. The pure water of the spring is, moreover, very different from the brackish water of the lake. — Riding hence N.N.E. towards Mejdel, we regain the Damascus road in 1 ½ hr. (see below).

From Bâniâs to Jisr el-Khardeli (Sidon), see p. 450; to Hâsbeyâ, see p. 451.

From Bâniâs To Damascus (13 ½ hrs.). From Bâniâs we ride to ‘Ain er-Rihân, an ascent of 1 hr.; near this spring is the wely of Shêkh ‘Othmân el-Hazûri. The slopes of Hermon abound with water, but the paths are bad. In ascending we keep the castle in view until (¾ hr.), beyond the top of the hill, we descend into a valley. We then cross (¼ hr.) a small valley which runs down to the right, where there is a mill in a plantation of young silver poplars. This belongs to the Druse village of Mejdel (or Mejdel esh-Shems), which lies behind the hill to the left and soon comes in sight (¼ hr.). As we approach the central mass of the precipitous Hermon, volcanic rocks begin to predominate. Myrtles now appear for the first time.

The road enters another small valley and ascends to the (¾ hr. ) lofty plain of Merj el-Hadr, which is partly cultivated, and in May yields a beautiful flora. On the left rises the bare Mt. Hermon, where fields of snow of some extent, particularly in the clefts of the rocks, are seen as late as the end of May and beginning of June. We pass (½ hr.) on the right some heaps of stones of basalt which mark the site of some ancient town, and (½ hr.) reach a point commanding a fine view of a number of extinct craters and other hills to the S. and E.; for the first time also we obtain a view of the great plain bounded by Anti-Libanus on the W., which on sunny days appears like a vast blue sea. The plain of Damascus is separated from that of the Haurân by the Jebel el-Aswad (black mountain), which rises to the E. of our standpoint. The extensive montain range of the Haurân rises before us. In the plain below is seen the village of Kunêtera (p. 387).

After 37 min. we begin to descend, and in 13 min. reach the large village of Bêt Jenn, situated at the mouth of two valleys between steep rocky slopes, in which are several rock-tombs. We follow the course of the beautiful brook through plantations of the silver poplar, a tree which forms a characteristic feature of the environs of Damascus, and is chiefly used for building purposes. We avoid (10 min.) a broad road to the right, and follow the course of the stream past the mills. The brook is here called Jennâni, and afterwards forms part of the A‘waj (Pharpar). After 12 min. we leave the valley and ride across several slopes of Hermon and an undulating country more to the N.; to the right below lies the village of Mezra‘a, and beyond it stretches the beautiful plain, while the snowy summit of Hermon still presides over the scene on the left. The road passes (40 min.) the village of Hini on the left, crosses (1 hr. 5 min.) a valley, and (27 min.) reaches Kefr Hawâr, the usual halting-place between Bâniâs and Damascus. The village, which derives its name from its numerous silver poplars, is inhabited by Muslims and contains no antiquities. By the tower on the hill we obtain a fine view of the plain, particularly of the region of Sa‘sa‘ (p. 388). We next cross the Wâdy Arni (10 min.) and pass (10 min.) the village of Bêtîma, which lies on the hill to the left and also possesses a tower (perhaps formerly a Druse temple). The whole route commands a view of the plain, but the country is only partially cultivated. The caravan route leads by Katana. It crosses (1 hr.) the Nahr Barbar (a name in which that of the ancient Pharpar survives), leaving the mountains about 3 M. to the left. It next reaches (1 ¾ hr.) Katana, a village surrounded by orchards, passes (1 ¾ hr.) Mu‘addamîyeh, which lies to the right, and enters vineyards. The capabilities of the soil of the plain of Damascus, when properly irrigated, are already apparent here. To the left are the hills of Kalabat Mezzeh. The road soon reaches (½ hr.) the orchards, then (55 min.) Kefr Sûsa, and (20 min.) the gate of Damascus (p. 460).

From Betima To Damascus BY Dârêya. About 20 min. beyond Bêtima (see above) another road quits the main route and turns more to the E. towards the N.W. end of the Jebel Aswad (Katana being left to the left). By this route we reach the village of ‘Artûz in 2 ½ hrs.; to the right, on the hill, are the ruins of the castle of Jûneh. We next reach (22 min.) the village of El-Jedeideh, where gardens begin. To the left (½ hr.) is seen the village of Mu‘addamîyeh (S. E.), and to the right ‘Ain Berdi and El-Ashrafîyeh. We next reach (18 min.) a broad road to Dâréya, and (¼ hr.) that village itself. Dâréya is still a place of some importance, as it was also in the middle ages. The Franks used to extend their predatory excursions as far as this point, but were prevented from coming farther by the walls which enclose the orchards around Damascus. These walls, built of clay, now surround us in every direction, and the orchards within them, being abundantly irrigated, are carpeted with luxuriant pasture. At (1 hr.) the village of El-Kâdem, the domes of Damascus become very distinct, and we soon reach (20 min.) the Bawwâbet Allah, or ‘Gate of God’ (p. 478), outside which there is a new barrack, and a number of millstones of basalt are scattered about. A ride of ½ hr. through the town brings us to the Hotel Dimitri (p. 460), but the way to it outside the walls is pleasanter. Tents are also usually (??)hed near the hotel, on the W. side of the town.

b. By Kunétera.

20— 21 hrs. — From the castle of Safed (p. 376) the route descends 20 min. to the N. E., turns to the E., and enters the Wâdy Furém. After ¾ hr. we descend to the lower part of this valley. To the S. we see the village of El-Jauneh. After 25 min. the road divides, and we cross the road leading from Khân Jubb Yûsef (p. 375) to Bâniâs. In ¼ hr. we reach the ruins of El-Katana, in 1 hr. the point where the descent into the deeper part of the Jordan valley begins, and in ¼ hr. more the Jisr Benât Ya‘kûb, or ‘Bridge of the Daughters of Jacob’.

This bridge was probably so named at the time when the Jews were doing their utmost to fix the scenes of their sacred history in Galilee, vis. during the later period of the prosperity of Tiberias. Jacob is said to have once crossed the Jordan here (Gen. xxxii. 10), but his passage of the river must have taken place much lower down (ver. 22). From time immemorial there has been a ford across the Jordan here on the great caravan route, the Via Maris of the middle ages, but the date of the bridge is unknown. This point, which connected Egypt with Damascus and the regions of the Euphrates, was moreover of strategical as well as commercial importance, particularly at the time of the Frank domination; and it was here that King Baldwin III., when on his march to Tiberias for the purpose of relieving Bâniâs, was surprised and defeated by Nûreddîn. In 1178 Baldwin IV. built a castle to defend the bridge, and committed it to the custody of the Templars, but it was taken by storm by Saladin in the following year. The slight remains of this Frank castle are to be seen ¼ hr. below the bridge. The great caravanserai on this commercial route and the bridge itself were probably built before the middle of the 15th century. To the left is a khân, and on the right bank of the river a ruin. The bridge, which is built of basalt, was repaired for the last time by Jezzâr Pasha. In 1799 the French penetrated as far as this point.

The Jordan is here about 27 yds. in width; its current is rapid, and it abounds with fish. The bridge is situated 87 ft. above the level of the Mediterranean. The banks are bordered with oleanders, zakkûm (p. 262), papyrus, and other kinds of bushes and reeds.

Beyond Jordan begins the district of Jôlân, the ancient Gaulanitis, named after the Levite city of Golan which belonged to Manasseh (Joshua xx, 8; i Chron. vi. 71). This region, which extended to the Hieromax (Sherî‘at el-Mandur, p. 399), and formed part of Peræa, belonged to the tetrarchy of Philip. Arrived at the top of the steep left bank of the Jordan (20 min.), we enjoy a fine view of the upper part of the valley down to the Lake of Tiberias, at the N.E. end of which the plain of Batîha is visible. Beyond this the road ascends over undulating ground, some of which is carpeted with excellent herbage, and some clothed with wood. After 1 ¼ hr. we pass the ruined village of Nawarân. Turcomans, or nomadic Turkish tribes (p. 84), are met with on this route, as well as Beduîns. We next reach (1 ½ hr.) the springs of ‘Ayun es-Semâm and approach the Tell Abu Khanzîr (boar hill), which after 40 min. we leave to the right. This tell is one of the first of those conical basaltic hills, running from N. to 8., which form the Jebel el-Hêsh. We now soon reach the top of the lofty plain of the Syrian desert. On the right (40 min.) we observe a cistern, and on the left the Tell Yûsef and Tell Abu Nedi. In a little more than 1 hr. we reach El-Kunétera, a village situated 3040 ft.. above the sea-level, whence an ancient Roman road leads to Bâniâs. The village consists of about eighty hovels. The khan is almost a complete ruin, but this is the best place on the route for spending the night. Travellers are cautioned against sleeping in the open air, as heavy dews fall here, probably owing to the proximity of Hermon (Psalm cxxxiii. 3). The Beduîns often pasture their flocks here in the hot season.

Kunétera is the central point of a district named after it. Here, on the E. side of Jebel Hésh, begins the district of Jêdûr, which is also noted for its pastures. It is very questionable whether this Jêdûr has any connection with the ancient district of Ituraea (p. 55), the situation of which is not yet ascertained, as ancient authors merely inform us that it lay near Lebanon. The Ituræans are said to derive their name from Jetur, the son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15). They were often at war with the Israelites, and are described as predatory in their habits and dangerous to the commercial route to Damascus. Their land consisted chiefly of pasture. All this seems to indicate that Ituræa was partly coincident with the present Jêdûr, and it was doubtless in the vicinity of Trachonitis (p. 400). The Ituræans, however, frequently invaded Lebanon, and even made predatory expeditions as far as Tripoli. The Asmonean Aristobulus conquered them in B.C. 107 with the aid of his brother Antigonus, and compelled them to embrace Judaism. Pompey afterwards gave them no rest and destroyed their fastnesses. The name of Ituræa seems then to have been applied to a district between Lebanon and Anti-Libanus. At a later period we find Ituræans among the Roman legions, even those on the Upper Rhine, after their territory had been annexed to Syria by the Emperor Claudius.

Beyond Kunétera we traverse a fertile, open country, with several springs, towards the N.E.; to the right in the distance rises the isolated Tell Hara. The ruined khan of El-Kurébeh is passed on the left, 2 ½ hrs. farther on; the Tell Jubba (25 min.) also remains to the left, and we now enter the forest of Shakkâra. We next cross (2 hrs.) the brook Mughannîyeh by a bridge, traverse the Plain of Sa‘sa‘, and descend to (1 hr.) Sa‘sa‘, a village with a large khân, situated on the watercourse of the Wâdy el-Jennâni (p. 386), at the foot of an isolated hill. We cross (½ hr.) the ‘Arni, pass the (1 ½ hr.) Khân esh-Shîh (from ‘shîh’, a woody plant of the desert), and reach (1 ½ hr.) the village of Kôkab, which lies etween the hills of the Jebel es-Aswad, and from which we look down on the villages of the Ghûta. We next reach (1 ½ hr.) Dâréya (p. 386) and lastly (1 hr. 20 min.) Damascus.