The country included under the names of Syria and Palestine lies along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, extending from the border of Egypt and the peninsula of Sinai on the south to the confines of Asia Minor on the north; and having on its eastern side the great, and now desert, plain of Arabia. It reaches from 31° to 36° 30’ N. lat.; its extreme length being thus about 360 geographical miles, while its breadth ranges from 60 to 100. Its entire area may be estimated at about 28,000 square miles.
The surface formation of the country is extremely simple. A mountain chain, a branch from the Taurus range, stretches along the coast from north to south. It is first broken by the great valley of the Orontes, on whose picturesque banks stand the crumbling towers of Antioch. The scenery of this northern section is bold and grand. Lofty wooded peaks shut in the spacious bay of Iskanderûn, leaving along their base only the narrow plain of Issus, on which the fate of the Persian empire was sealed, and Western Asia gained to Alexander the Great. On the south bank of the Orontes the graceful cone of Casius rises to a height of full 5000 ft., clothed with verdant forests to its very summit. From hence southward runs the Nusairîyeh range (anciently Mons Bargylus), until it terminates at a wide break, called in Scripture the “Entering in of Hamath” from the “Great Sea.” A plain of considerable breadth lies between this section and the Mediteranean; and upon it once stood the cities of Laodicea, Tortosa, and Aradus. The last occupied a little island, and was an early settlement of the Phœnicians. Immediately to the south of the “Entering in of Hamath” Lebanon towers up in stern grandeur more than 10,000 feet over the sea that laves its base and receives its thousand streams. On the side of its loftiest peak, far removed from other trees, stand, in stately solitude, the last and only group of the Cedars; seeming as if they would disdain to mingle with the degenerate forests of a later age. Not far distant, at the foot of a majestic cliff, is the fountain of the classic river Adonis, whose waters rush madly to the sea through a ravine which for wild grandeur and picturesque beauty is scarcely surpassed in the world. Beneath the shadow of Lebanon still stand the remnants of the ancient cities of Phœnicia, famed for their wealth and their commerce in a remote age—Tyre and Sidon, Gebal and Berytus are here, fallen from their former glory, yet little changed in name.
The range of Lebanon is intersected by the gorge of the Leontes, which drains the great plain of Cœlesyria, and falls into the Mediterranean a little north of Tyre. To the south of this river the ridge increases in breadth, but decreases in altitude, until it terminates in the wooded cone of Tabor, and the rocky hills that encircle Nazareth. Here the plain of Esdraelon, through which the Kishon flows, separates Lebanon from its natural continuation, the range of Carmel, and the mountains of Samaria. To these succeeds the “hill country of Judza,” stretching in a wide ridge to the desert of Tîh, which forms the southern boundary of the “Land of Promise.” This southern section of the mountain chain is wider, lower, and less regular than any of the others, Its general elevation at Ebal and Gerizim, Olivet and Hebron, ranges only from 2400 to 2700 ft. With the exception of the projecting promontory of Carmel, it is also farther removed from the sea,leaving at its base a broad fertile plain, more than 150 miles in length, embracing the “beautiful Sharon” on the north, and the whole land of Philistia on the south. Great cities once stood upon it, and a teeming population once gathered its luxuriant harvests; but now "Sharon is like a wilderness,” and the cities of Philistia are fallen—Gaza is "forsaken;” Ascalon “a desolation;” Ashdod is “driven out;” and Ekron “rooted up.”
In the southern part of the "Land of Hamath,” some 20 miles E. of Lebanon, another mountain chain commences, and runs in a south-western direction, parallel to the former. It is called Anti-Lebanon. Its general elevation is not equal to that of Lebanon ; but near its southern extremity the noble cone of Hermon shoots up and rivals the loftiest peaks in Syria. As viewed from the W., this range seems to continue its course southward; but this appearance is owing to the depression of the Jordan valley, and the high level of the plateau of Bashan. In reality the chain terminates about 25 miles S. of Hermon and 8 N. of the Sea of Tiberias. The lofty bank on the eastern side of that sea is merely the declivity of the plateau. A little farther to the S., at the river Jarmuk, commence the mountains of Gilead, which extend along the E. bank of the Jordan in a broad irregular chain till they meet those of Moab and Edom on the E. of the Dead Sea. It was among the southern heights of this chain the Israelites wound their weary way from the desert of Sinai to the "Land of Canaan;”’ it was from Nebo, one of its peaks, Moses obtained his last view of that country he was not permitted to enter; it was the rich pastures and abundant waters of the central and northern sections of the range which attracted the attention of the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and, being conquered, formed the earliest possessions of "God’s people;”’ and it was in the plain to the N.E. that the hosts of the Amorites were overthrown at Edrei, where Og, the last of Bashan’s giant kings, was slain.
From Hermon as a centre, a series of mountain ranges branch out like an opening fan from the N.E. to the E. The loftiest of these is Anti-Lebanon proper; the others incline more to the eastward, until the lowest and last, sweeping along the great Arabian plain, passes Damascus, the oldest city in the world, and for situation one of the most beautiful; and then, after a long dreary course, also passes Palmyra, with a situation similar to that of Damascus, but without an "Abana and Pharpar”’ to convert a parched desert into a Paradise.
Only one other group of hills is here deserving of notice. It is away far to the E. of the Sea of Galilee, on the uttermost border of the plateau of Bashan. The scenery of this group is picturesque and wild; its oak forests equal those of Gilead; and the ruins of cities that once crowded its slopes are among the proudest in the land. It is now called by strangers "Jebel Haurân;” but its real name, “Bathanyeh,” recalls the ancient Bashan. It is the Alsadamus Mons of Ptolemy.
But by far the most remarkable feature in the physical geography of Syria and Palestine is the valley that intersects the country from N. to S. Beginning at Antioch, it runs southward, through the centre of the ancient kingdom of the Seleucidæ, some of whose greatest cities, as Antioch, Apamea, Hamath, and Emesa, stood in it. From Emesa it extends across the plain till it meets the valley of Cœlesyria near Riblah, once the favourite camping-ground of the Assyrian and Egyptian monarchs, and celebrated in Jewish history as the place where Zedekiah, he last king,after witnessing the murder of his children, had his eyes put out by the barbarous Nebuchadnezzar. Thus far the valley forms the bed of the river Orontes, which flows northward from its fountain at the base of Lebanon, and thence receives from the Arabs its name, El-Maklúb, "The Inverted.” (See description of the Orontes below.)
The valley of Cœlesyria lies between the parallel ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It is about 70 miles long, and its average breadth is nearly 7. About half-way along the valley, on the eastern side, stand the ruins of Ba’albek, famed throughout the world for the Cyclopean proportions of their foundations, the beauty of their sculptured architraves and cornices, and the symmetry of their columns. 23 miles farther down the valley, near the base of Anti-Lebanon, lie the prostrate ruins of Chalcis, once a royal city, now a desolate heap. The elevation of Cœlesyria above the sea is about 2300 ft. At its southern end it divides into two branches—one, turning westward, cuts through the range of Lebanon, becoming a gorge so narrow that the foaming waters of the Leontes can scarcely force their way onward, and in one spot the cliffs meet above the struggling river, forming a noble archway; the other strikes off southward, and is the natural continuation of Cœlesyria. The latter branch descends rapidly for 15 miles to the upper fountain of the Jordan, at the western base of Hermon, near the village of Hasbeiya. A few miles farther S. it joins the plain of Samachonitis (now el-Hûleh), which, strange to say, is on a level with the sea. From hence it continues descending rapidly to the lake of Tiberias, which has a depression of 653 ft. The chasm of the Jordan forms the continuation of the great valley to the Dead Sea, the surface of whose waters is 1312 ft. below that of the Mediterranean. Here then is a valley nearly 300 miles in length, for more than 140 of which it is below the level of the sea, and is thus like a fissure in the crust of the earth. It is this singular feature which renders the physical geography of Syria so deeply interesting. It is not a little strange, however, that while so many scientific expeditions have been sent out by England to the ends of the earth, not one has yet gone forth to explore the geography or the geology of Palestine. Individual enterprise has done much to elucidate the geography; but the geological wonders are as yet almost wholly unexplored. This seems unaccountable; for surely the geologist would find a rich and rare field for research in the bright and variegated granites of the Sinai peninsula, with their veins of ore, successfully wrought by the Egyptians thousands of years ago; in the myriads of fossil organic remains in the calcareous and sandstone formations of Hermon and Lebanon; in the remarkable trap-fields of the plain of Bashan; and above all in the deep volcanic chasm extending from the lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea, with its warm springs, salt mountains, and bitumen pits. This is not the place either for detailing the little that is known of the geology of Syria, or for adding anything new to our meagre stock of information; but it is the place for calling the attention of geologists to an interesting country, and for inviting scientific men to undertake a thorough examination of it. America has set us a noble example, both of public spirit and individual enterprise. A government expedition, even with all its defects, and the acknowledged incapacity of its chief, has thoroughly explored the Jordan, and surveyed the Dead Sea; while Dr. Robinson, one of the greatest of her scholars, has spent almost a lifetime in the elucidation of the historical geography of Palestine. Has England less interest in this land than her transatlantic sister? Are her sons less learned, or less enthusiastic in the advancement of science, than their brethren in the “far west”? Will not the hope of advantageously investing capital in the construction of railways, or in commercial enterprise, or in the cultivation of cotton, call the attention of England’s merchant princes to a survey of this country, and a full examination of its resources? Syria has still, in its soil and in its people, the elements of greatness aud prosperity waiting to be developed.
Rivers.—Of the rivers of Syria the most important, whether we consider its physical peculiarities, or its sacred and historic interest, is the JORDAN. The fact of its running, throughout its whole course, beneath the level of the sea, renders it a natural wonder; and the fact of its having been the baptismal font of the Son of God Incarnate, for ever enshrines it in the heart and memory of universal Christendom. Its highest source, or rather the source of its principal tributary, is in Wady et-Teim, near the village of Hasbeiya, at the western base of Hermon; but the true historic sources of the river are at Tell el-Kâdy (the ancient Dan), in the plain of Hûleh; and at Baniâs (the ancient Cæsarea-Philippi), on the southern slope of Hermon. Both of these will be described in their proper places. The three streams unite, and fall into the lake Hûleh (the Samachonitis of Josephus, and "Waters of Merom” of the Bible), about 10 miles below Tell el-Kády. Issuing from this little lake, the river rushes on through a narrow volcanic valley to the Sea of Galilee, now called Bahr Tubaríyeh ; whose dimensions, as given by Lynch, are 12 miles long by 6 broad. On leaving this lake, of which a full account will be found in its proper place, it runs in a very tortuous course, now sweeping along alluvial banks, and now tumbling over piles of rugged rocks in sheets of foam. The channel a short distance below the lake is 90 ft. wide. At the distance of about 4 miles it receives its largest tributary, the Sheri’at el-Mandhúr (the Hieromax of the Greeks, and Jarmuk of the Hebrews), which has its sources in Jebel Haurân, and drains nearly the whole of Bashan. At the place where it joins the Jordan it is 130 ft. wide; and is nearly equal in volume to the river into which it flows. The Jordan, during the greater part of its course, from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, has two distinct lines of banks: the first confine the river itself, and are not more than from 8 to 15 ft. high ; the second are at some considerable distance from the channel, and are in places 60 ft. and upwards in height. The terraces above the latter form the true level of the Jordan valley. Towards the southern extremity even three sets of banks may be distinguished—the upper ones forming the first descent from the valley; the middle ones enclosing a tract of canes and other shrubs and herbage; and the last confining the waters.
The scenery is peculiar and striking. The deep depression gives to the whole chasm the sultry heat of tropical climes; and the rich soil, where moist or irrigated, yields their rank vegetation and special productions. Lynch thus describes the upper section :—“The high alluvial terraces on each side were everywhere shaped by the action of the winter rains into numbers of conical hills, some of them pyramidal and cunciform, presenting the appearance of a giant encampment, so perfectly tent-like were their shapes. This singular configuration extended southward as far as the eye could reach. At intervals I caught a glimpse of the river in its graceful meanderings, sometimes glittering like a spear-head through an opening in the foliage, and again clasping some little island in its shining arms, or, far away, snapping with the fierceness and white foam of a torrent by some projecting point. . . . The banks were fringed with the laurustinus, the oleander, the willow, and the tamarisk ; and farther inland, on the slope of the second terrace, grew a small species of oak, and the cedar(?). The arbutus was mingled with the flowers of the plain. From the banks to the elevated ridges on either side, the grass and the flowers presented a surface of luxuriance and beauty.” It must be remembered, however, that this is a spring description. In autumn everything is different. Except where a fountain gushes up, or a streamlet flows, the whole plain is a parched desert. In some places the breadth of the river is as much as 80 yards, and the depth two; but the average breadth may be estimated at about 50 yards, and the depth from four to seven feet. ‘The banks are generally either conglomerate or alluvial; the latter give a milky hue to the water.
At about the middle of its course between the two lakes the Jordan receives the waters of the Zurka (the Jabbok of the Bible), It was, when Lynch passed, ‘‘a small stream, trickling down a wide torrent-bed. The water was sweet, but the stones upon the bare exposed bank were coated with salt. ‘There was another bed, quite dry, showing that in times of Freshets there were two outlets to this tributary.” The Jabbok was the boundary between the ancient kingdoms of Sihon and Og; and also formed the northern border of the Ammonites. Previous to the expedition of Lieut. Lynch it had been conjectured that there must be some error in the calculation of the relative levels of the Dead Sea and the lake of Tiberias. The distance between the two is only 60 miles; and it was thought impossible that the Jordan could fall so much as was represented in that space. But it is now seen that in 60 miles of direct distance the course of the river cannot be less than 200 miles, owing to its tortuous channel. The total fall is 660 ft. The whole length of the Jordan, from the fountain at pan to the place where it enters the Dead Sea, is 92 miles as the crow flies.
The Oronres ranks next in importance to the Jordan. Its modern name is el-’ Asy (“The Rebellious”); and it is also called ed-Maklûb (“The Inverted ”), from the fact of its running, as is thought, in a wrong direction. Its highest source is in the plain of Bukâ’a, at the base of Anti-Lebanon, beside the ruins of the ancient city of Lybon. From thence it runs in a northerly direction, diagonally across the plain to the great fountain at the base of the opposite mountain range, near the rock-hewn convent of Mar Marôn. Hence it flows northward, passing Hums, Hamath, and Apamea; at Antioch it sweeps round to the W.,-and falls into the Mediterranean near Seleucia. Its scenery is in general tame and uninteresting; but as it approaches the sea the mountains rise up on each side in stern grandeur, and the foaming torrent rushes over its rocky bed between lofty walls of rock. Where this river passes the ancient cities of Emesa (Hums) and Hamath, it is smaller than the Jordan; but it receives numerous tributaries from the mountain region round Antioch, which increase its volume several fold. Its length, from the fountain to the bend at the lake near Antioch, is about 125 miles ; and from thence to the sea 24 miles.
The Litany is the next in magnitude. There is some doubt about its ancient name. It is generally called the "Leontes," but this appears to be an error, at least if Ptolemy be correct, for he places the river “Leon” (of which “Leontes” is the genitive) between Sidon and Beyrout. But an old Arab author, quoted by Reland, mentions a river "Lanteh” as falling into the sea between Tyre and Sarepta. his is undoubtedly the Litany (or as it is now called in the lower part “Kasimiyeh”); but whether we identify this with the Leontes or not will depend on our estimate of the accuracy of Ptolemy. The Litany rises near Ba‘albek, flows in an easy current down the Bukâ’a, receiving several tributaries from the mountain ranges on each side ; one of the largest of which comes from two great fountains, ’Ain esh-Shems and ’Ain ’Anjar, near the ruins of Chalcis. After leaving the plain it enters a sublime gorge intersecting the whole ridge of Lebanon, and foams like a maniac between rugged cliffs, till, at last, it finds rest in the Mediterranean. Its total length is about 55 miles.
Next in order comes the BARADA,—the “golden-flowing” stream of the Greeks (Chrysorrhoes); and the “sweet-sounding” ABANA, or Amana, of the Bible. If not one of the largest, this is unquestionably one of the most useful rivers of Syria. It derives its whole supply of water from two great fountains in the very centre of Anti-Lebanon—’Ain Barada and ’Ain Fijeh. It cuts through several of the parallel ridges of this chain, struggling with rock and cliff down a winding ravine of singular grandeur and wildness, till after a course, "as the crow flies,” of 15 miles, it bursts from its mountain barrier into the plain of Damascus. The industry of man has here turned its abundant waters into countless channels, which, as an Arabian poet says, “carry gold in their bosom, and scatter emeralds over the plain.” The Barada has created this, the fairest and the loveliest of Mohammed’s paradises. On its banks, between its fountain and the Ghŭtah (as the western section of the plain of Damascus is called), there are 14 villages, with a population of some 3000 souls. In the Ghûtah itself are upwards of 90 villages, with a population of 40,000. In Damascus are 150,000 souls. So that the whole district rendered habitable by the waters of the ancient Abana contains nearly 200,000 persons. Well might the proud Naaman exclaim, before the Prophet of Israel,—"Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel?” (2 Kings v. 12.)